Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570 – 478 BC) was a Greek philosopher, poet, and social critic, known for challenging traditional religious beliefs and advancing early epistemology. As one of the most original pre-Socratic thinkers, he rejected anthropomorphic depictions of gods and proposed a singular, eternal deity, laying the groundwork for later philosophical discussions on divinity.
Born in Ionia, Xenophanes led an itinerant life, composing poetry that satirized societal values, wealth, and the glorification of athletic victories. He was highly critical of Homer and Hesiod, arguing that their portrayals of the gods as flawed and immoral misrepresented divine nature. He insisted that true knowledge was elusive, distinguishing between belief and certainty – ideas that influenced later skeptics and philosophers.
Xenophanes also made significant contributions to natural philosophy. He theorized that fossils indicated Earth was once covered by water, an early recognition of geological change. His cosmological ideas, including a boundless Earth and new suns appearing daily, contrasted with prevailing Greek notions of celestial order.
Despite his skepticism, Xenophanes remained deeply engaged with questions of morality and truth. His legacy spans multiple philosophical traditions, from early theology to empirical inquiry. His insights into knowledge, nature, and divinity continue to be studied as a critical bridge between mythology and rational thought.